ABSTRACT
Quite a good number of Afro-centric scholars assert that
there is the existence of drama in Africa before the intrusion of the
colonialists. African drama is distinct from other forms of drama in the world
because of its inseparable link with its cultural and traditional elements. The
use of traditional elements generally in African literature and, specifically,
African drama, by writers cannot be over-emphasized. This work investigated the
use of traditional elements in modern African drama through some selected Wole
Soyinka’s and Zulu Sofola’s plays. This project which uses the exploratory
research and textual analysis method is anchored on the ethno-dramatic
indigenous theory of drama analysis. The analysis, however, reveals that there
is the ample and adept use of traditional elements by both playwrights. The
depth and style of such usage of these traditional elements differ considerably
from Soyinka to Sofola in certain given texts. Although, there is the fusion of
both traditional and literary drama in the works of both playwrights, there
appears to be localization of western influences as a result of the inevitable
cultural contact. Drama in Africa is culturally challenged to creatively
exploit and explore the abundantly rich cultural and traditional contents and
elements so as to re-mould its socio-political setting and situation in the
face of a sub-merging world called a global village. African drama deserves to
be evaluated within the confines of Afro-centric theories which have to be
developed and used religiously by scholars.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0.
INTRODUCTION
Chapter one takes a
cursory look at the general background to the study of drama and concepts
adduced by different scholars in adjudging drama: There is the Eurocentric and
Afrocentric views on the existence of drama in Africa and what constitute
modern African drama. Also in this chapter, there is the view and treatment on
the Statement of the problem, Research questions, Purpose of the study, Scope
of the study, Significance of the study and Research methodology.
1.1.
General
Background to the Study
Drama as an art form
thrives on performance because it involves the imitation of an action, an
enactment or a re-enactment of a story in lifelike situations. In all these,
action or imitation of an action is involved. The Aristotelian concept of drama
with its emphasis on imitation, plot, dialogue, conflict and so on has
generated much controversy on what constitutes drama in the context of African
traditional performances, generally. Based on this, two schools of thoughts
have evolved. Some scholars support the adoption of the Aristotelian thought
either totally or with some modifications while others oppose it. Consequently,
there are two schools of thoughts on the contentious issue. These are the
relativist school of thought and the evolutionist school of thought. Some
adherents of the evolutionist school like Ruth Finnegan and Kalu Uka believe
that there is nothing like African drama, and they condemn drama in Africa for
its lack of linguistic content, plot, represented interaction of several
characters, specialized scenery, among others, in comparison with drama in the
western axis which is said to be the source for drama in Africa.
The arguments of the
evolutionist school are summed up as Eurocentric, while the arguments of the
relativist school, on the other hand, are summed up as Afro-centric views. Scholars
such as Akporobaro F.B.O. (62) assert that “…the nature and aesthetic basis of
dramatic performances in the traditional African context are in many respects
different from what obtains in the European context.” Consequently, this school
of thought advocates the use of the African dramatic aesthetics in the
evaluation of African plays irrespective of their contentious nature as argued
by Iyorwuese Hagher (160). Nonetheless, the use of the African dramatic
aesthetics is advocated against the universal western dramatic aesthetics. This
is premised on the indisputable fact that drama is an important element in
traditional African culture. In other words, drama in Africa is buried in its
traditional and cultural personality (Michael Echeruo, 136).
Related to the position
of Echeruo, Enekwe Ossie (154), a vocal voice for the existence of African
drama who distinguishes drama in Africa from other forms of drama in the world,
maintains that the closest form of drama to it is the Asian drama. He goes
further to state that African drama is more presentational, stylized,
ritualistic, participative, mythic, integrative, religious, metaphysical,
sensuous, celebrative, and total because it combines many art forms such as music,
poetry, dance, acting, miming, mask, painting, singing, dialogue, acrobatics,
among others, which distinguish it from the mainstream European drama quite psychological,
peripheral, metaphysical and intellectual.
Further to this argument, some Euro-centric critics who condemn African
drama borrow from it to bring back the lost dramatic glory of the western
drama. This borrowing implies that drama in Africa has attained some uniqueness
and distinction.
1.1.1. Eurocentric Views on the Existence of Drama in
Africa
The
Eurocentric view is summarized in the “evolutionist school” headed by M. J. C.
Echeruo. To them, “Africa has no culture or history” or African history and
civilization are nothing more than the story of European activities in Africa”
(Ademola Ajayi, 10). Jude Agho (10, 11 & 12) notes that the Eurocentric
stance was clearly portrayed in works of Joseph Conrad (Heart of Darkness) and Joyce Cary (Mister Johnson). Generally, the different Eurocentric socio-cultural
and political misconceptions about Africa are well discussed by Felix Alao (13-18).
These culturally demeaning euro-centric views on Africa generally extend to the
literature in Africa (Ogundeji P.A., 211). These views imply specifically that
there was no drama in Africa until the incursion of the colonial masters.
To buttress the above
stance, Julius-Adeoye Rantimi (4) presents the Eurocentric views of three antagonistic
scholars in the persons of Ruth Finnegan, Michael Echeruo and Richard
Wallaschek. Finnegan argues that “there is no linguistic content, plot,
represented interaction of several characters, specialized scenery in the
African drama; Richard Wallaschek bemoans the meaninglessness of African drama
as against the European’s meaningfulness in dramatic content; while Echeruo
condemns Igbo ritual drama as lacking in dramatic content and argues that
traditional festivals are not drama, but rituals. Echeruo insists that there
must exist a story to be enacted or imitated for a performance to be classified
as drama. They simply dismiss drama in Africa as mere ritual. Also quite noteworthy
here is Ola Rotimi who hinges his argument on the presence of an imitation of
action in the performance for it to be termed drama. He opines that “any ritual
display which contains mimetic impulse ought to be classified as drama, not
ritual” (Ogunbiyi, 7). In addition to the trio’s denial is Uka (1973), cited in
Osuagwu & Affiah (2012) who states thus:
What
is usually called traditional drama….is not yet drama.
It
is the legacy upon which drama may draw and draw with
ever
increasing returns….what some usually and glibly call
traditional
drama is properly and essentially elements of drama. (6)
From the above
quotation, drama in African did not exist until the incursion of the
colonialists and consequently, their imposed education and civilization and
even if drama existed in Africa, it was not full-fledged. In other words, there
was nothing like drama in existence in pre-colonial Africa. Western
civilization brought drama to Africa as far as the Eurocentric scholars are
concerned. This school insists, therefore,
that for any performance to be classified as drama, it must contain elements of
an imitation of an action and a story to be enacted or re-enacted. They
conclude that the ritual festivals in Africa must conform to the Aristotelian
concept of plot as the soul of drama, to be regarded as drama.
However, as far as
Osuagwu and Affiah (6) are concerned, Euro-centrism amounts to
‘de-indigenizing’ or ‘de-traditionalizing’ African drama. Furthermore, in
reaction to Finnegan’s criticism, Osuagwu and Affiah (6) strongly state that
Finnegan’s conclusion was nothing but mere swallowing of Aristotelian
postulations on drama which were descriptive of what Sophocles had done, rather
than being prescriptive.
1.1.2.
Afro-centric Views on the Existence of Drama
in Africa
Apart from the
observation of Osuagwu and Affiah above, other counter-criticisms by
Afro-centric scholars abound. These criticisms are aggregated in the
“relativist school.” The view of the relativist school, championed by Ossie
Enekwe and Adedeji J. A., is that drama and ritual are reciprocal in function
and similar in structure, so one can easily lead to the other. It means that it
is difficult to separate ritual and drama, therefore, drama exists in
traditional performances. Supporting this view, Ogunbiyi (4) states that the
origins of drama lie in the numerous traditional, religious and functional
rituals. J. P. Clark (58-59), similarly, suggests that the origins of Nigerian drama
which is a subset of African drama, is likely to be found in the early religious
and magical ceremonies and festivals of the Yoruba, the egwugwu and mmo masques
of the Ibo, and the owu and oru water masquerades of the Ijaw;
dramas typical of the national repertory still generally unacknowledged today.
Nkala (1990: 7), cited
by Okodo (132), argues that, “that traditional African drama exists is not in
question”. Agho (2000: 1) clarifies this by stating that “the novel is the only
literary art form imported and imposed over and above the development from an
entirely native pattern.” Manjula V.N. (6) states that “traditional drama was
being performed before the colonial era, and its many forms, still performed”.
Jane Plastow (170) also categorically states that drama (both secular and
religious) existed in Africa long before the emergence in the 1960s of modern
African drama. Okodo (131) discrediting Finnegan’s derogatory stance on the
existence of drama in Africa, argues that if the dramatic performance of Greek
classical culture originated from ritual performances in honour of gods,
Dionysius and Apollos, why would the ritual performances of Igbo gods, nay all
the gods in Africa, be rejected?
Besides that,
Finnegan’s derogation culminates in naming drama in Africa as quasi-dramatic
phenomenon. Similarly, Manjulah (5) quotes Finnegan who says that “Africans
like specialized drama”. This, in itself, to a great extent, implies that
Africa had some form of drama felt not worth equating with western drama,
perhaps, because of its uniqueness that distinguishes it from its counterpart.
As further argued by Julius-Adeoye (3) and Ododo Sunday (2), what constitutes
drama or theatre is culture-referent and all performances are culture-based.
Okodo I. strengthens this argument by stating that no culture is inferior. Besides the fact that no culture is inferior,
every culture tends to be the resource for literature. In other words, literature
is a cultural production; by implication, drama is a cultural production.
European literature is not in any way different in this case. Similarly,
Schipper-de (56) says “there is no clear separation between oral literature and
drama”. In other words, oral literature, which is an integral aspect of
culture, contains elements of drama and is always at the same time drama in a
way because performance is such an essential part of literature, just as in
modern written drama.
As noted by
Ajayi (24), an indispensable source for reconstructing the early culture and
civilization of Africa is oral tradition. Though, oral traditions may take the
forms of myths, legends, songs, folklores, proverbs, poems, epigrammatic
sayings, popular history, and festivals, among others. Oral tradition is
unarguably an integral aspect of culture. This argument further implies that
oral traditions must have been the indigenous resources which had given drama
in Africa its uniqueness. This Afro-centric stance in the words of some notable
scholars, for example, Binebai Benedict (371) citing Nwamuo (2008) clarifies
this by making reference to James Ene Henshaw thus:
The issue of sanctified space in African
drama and the unique
idioms of mime, drama, ritual and
drumming which characterized
the total African theatre today were
first effectively woven into
written drama in English by Henshaw in Children of the Goddess. (264)
Ogundeji (211),
who has argued that traditional performances should be seen as theatre and
drama, sums the Afro-centric stance as “before the existence of the corn, the
fowl had always had something to eat”, a translation from a Yoruba proverb
(kà gbà dó tó dáyé, ó nihun tádiye n? je). This seems to find more strength in
Chinweizu’s (1980: 4) observation cited in Osuagwu and Affiah (7) that
"... African literature is an autonomous entity separate and apart from
all other literatures. It has its own traditions, models and norms. Its
constituency is separate and radically different from that of the European or
other literatures" (Osuagwu & Affiah, 7). In the spirit of this
self-defense, quite a good number of scholars have argued convincingly that it
is in the pre-colonial rituals, festivals and other related performances that
we can boast of indigenous theatre practice long before the intrusion of
westernization, said to be the genesis of African drama. As further argued by
Kafewo Samuel (198), ‘theatre and drama are the meeting points for all the “dormant”
elements of culture.’ It means that there was actually drama in Africa before
the incursion of the Europeans because drama is an intricate aspect of culture.
The incursion of
the colonial masters has only brought about culture contact and conflict. This,
however, helps in dividing African drama into two types, namely: the indigenous tradition which is sometimes called
traditional or indigenous drama, and the acquired tradition, otherwise called
literary drama, or the scripted play (Osuagwu & Affiah, 8). As noted
by Ogundeji (2005: 213), what is considered traditional drama appears to have a
fluid colouration depending on the meaning implied:
many
scholars usually describe the pre-colonial theatre (and drama)
practice
as “traditional”. The use of the term is usually contrasted with
“modern” theatre. Taking the
componential meaning of the qualifier
“traditional” into consideration, we
find it inappropriate for describing
the
pre-colonial form because the new, “modern” and post-colonial form
is
also a tradition and can, therefore, be suggested to replace it, since
“traditional” is often used to suggest
the meaning it connotes. This
would
have been useful except that the “modern” theatre and drama,
which
drew inspiration from the pre-colonial forms in adapting the “new”
western
forms, can also be described as indigenous and, in that sense,
appropriately
referred to as Nigerian and African theatre (and drama).
Instead
of dispensing with “traditional”, its usage should be properly
contextualized
as a special one; a jargon that includes the meaning of
both
an indigenous and an old form.
However, in spite
of the ambiguous nature of the term “traditional drama” as noted in the
observation of Ogundeji above, Manjula (6) divides drama (specifically,
Nigerian drama) into two: traditional and modern. Michael Etherton in his book,
The Development of African Drama analyses the causes that led to the
development of drama as play-texts in Africa. According to him, there are three
main factors such as the development of the study of drama in African
Universities, the extensive influence of classical (Greek and Roman) and
European form of drama on African playwrights, and the establishment of
play-texts as the dominant mode of drama (Manjula, 6). Manjula goes further to
divide modern drama into two: popular and literary. These two came about as a
result of western education. This classification, in a way, shows the existence
of drama in pre-colonial Africa before the imposition of western drama with its
attendant effects.
One clear
indication from the Eurocentric argument is the fact that the intrusion of the
so-called universal western drama has, no doubt, created some indescribable
impact on indigenous drama. Similarly, the imported universal western drama,
too, must have been Africanized or indigenized like the English language,
thereby resulting in a different drama genre quite far from the western drama.
That the peoples of Nigeria and Africa, as a whole, had their civilization prior
to any form of contact with the West is no longer an issue.
Ademola Dasylva
(282) who examines western influences on contemporary Nigerian dramatic culture
and tradition and classifies such into two (a combination of acceptance and
rejection and nativization or domestication through appropriation or adaptation
of western plays) agrees that western literary devices that characterize
Shakespeare’s dramaturgy have wielded much influence on contemporary Nigerian
drama in the area of topicality and form, characterology and historicity.
Contrary to this is the argument put forward by Ogundeji (221) who argues that
the crucial western elements of theatre practice, such as the use of the
proscenium stage, the box office, an elaborate narrative plot, dialogue, a
passive audience, have generally not influenced the “traditional” theatre
practice.
Nelson Fashina
(5-6) makes reference to Albert Ashaolu (1982) who discredits Ogundeji’s
argument by revealing the ‘coincidence’ and ‘correspondence and the marked influence
of classical and Elizabethan forms of tragedy on J.P. Clark’s Song of a Goat and The Masquerade, Ola
Rotimi’s The Gods Are Not To Blame; Sutherland’s
Edufa and the mythic-ideological
plays of Wole Soyinka ranging from The
Bacchae of Euripedes, The StrongBreed and The Swamp Dwellers and Camwood
on the Leaves (78). This is also supported by Crow Brian (29) who
identifies “syncretism” in post-colonial African Drama- creative recombination
of western and indigenous elements. In this case, A Dance of the Forest is described as a kind of African Midsummer Night’s Dreams by the Swedish
Academy which announced the award of Soyinka’s Nobel Prize for literature
(Jeyifo Biodun, 10). There is a distinct link here to indigenous ritual drama
and Elizabethan drama.
Nonetheless, the
cross-cultural influence brought about by culture contact is clearly reflective
of the argument advanced by Afis Oladosu (145), “some aspects of culture are
more relevant than others; some aspects may even be more destructive”. The
culture contact to the Afro-centric minds culminates in severe cultural
onslaught and imperialism against the rich African culture generally, and
specifically, drama. The cultural contact, no doubt, leads to cultural
development through borrowing and adaptation of new ideas. A culture must exist
for it to have contact with another culture. For an existing culture to be
self-sustaining, it must have a socio-cultural coping mechanism as well as some
inherent means of self-development. However, the indigenous traditions that
existed before western civilization have now been relegated to the backstage,
and their popularity even in the rural communities which naturally ought to be
the “home” of traditions has waned significantly.
In reaction to the
above thinking, Ajayi (23) argues that “if it is true that the Africans had a
rich history, culture and civilization, the pertinent question that arises is
how the people have preserved their rich cultural past?” The implication of
this cultural consciousness is that knowledge of this would help debunk the
erroneous Eurocentric misconceptions and direct students and researchers’
attention to areas worthy of exploration in modern African drama. In this light, Kehinde Ayo (301) who argues
that since literature is culture-bound, advises that emphasis should be placed
on the reconstruction of indigenous traditions in works of arts. In other
words, the urgent need to embark on cultural reconstruction has become
imperative and indispensable. This advice reinforces Achebe’s earlier observation
concerning the writer’s role. Achebe vehemently asserts that the writer’s duty
is to help the society regain what it has lost by showing them in human terms
what happened to them, what they lost. In other words, the writers are to
engage in cultural nationalism. He comments on his stories’ serious reliance on
indigenous traditions: “I have used such things. Before, and I will use them
again. This is what I have set myself to do: to reconstruct our history through
literature” (1990: 122). For Ali Mazrui, cited in Oladosu (245), “culture
constitutes for our people the surest means of overcoming our technological
backwardness and the most efficient force of our victorious resistance to
imperialist blackmail.” This is borne out of the keen observation that the
present-day African society is one that has the dominance of western influence
in almost all the areas of her socio-political life. Another challenge from
some scholars, according to Iyorwuese (160), is that “those that advocate a
celebrated return to traditional roots commit the blunder of classifying
‘traditional’ as African and ‘modern’ or ‘contemporary’ as western. These are
baseless assumptions that tend to consider as un-African plays written by
Africans on contemporary issues in Africa, that is, such authors as Sarif
Easmon in Dear Parent and Ogre, J. C. de Graft in Through a Film Darkly and Zulu Sofola in
The Sweet Trap, among others, who
treat diverse problems and issues ranging from urbanization to conflict among
the educated.
Agreed that western
drama exerts untold influence on African drama, Kehinde (302) discusses how
African writers have reconstructed and are reconstructing the indigenous
traditions of their continent in their individual works since the task of
salvaging the dying culture and traditions of Africa rests on the shoulders of
its writers. Writers are influenced by their societies, and they equally
influence their societies. Soyinka’s comment is apposite here when he states
that “the artist has always functioned in African society as the recorder of
mores and experience of his society and as a voice of vision in his own time”.
Chinweizu (1978: 309), cited in Osuagwu & Affiah (8), notes that writers
like Achebe have "ever since eloquently insisted that any artist, and
especially any African artist, must be consciously committed and accountable to
his society in his works, and not to some so-called timeless, universal values
which, more often than not, are nothing but the European cultural imperialists
salesmenese for Western values."
African writers
invariably draw their inspiration from indigenous traditions because they are a
source of strength for the writers. This informs their creative operations in
life. This explains why modern African literature is being undergirded by African
traditions. According to Kehinde, 303), Chinua Achebe goes further to add voice
to this when he claims that writers use many sources, most of which are oral
and what is most important is sustaining tradition of the people who can lay
claim to about 90 % of such sources. Other scholars who agree on this and
advocate a cultural reconstruction are Okpewho, 1979; Agho, 2000; Ogundeji,
2005 & Zargar, 2012, 85).
In furtherance to
the above, Okpewho (1983) also has categorized into four the works of contemporary
African writers who employ various indigenous traditions. These are:
i. Traditions
preserved
ii. Traditions observed
iii. Traditions refined
iv. Traditions revised
As regard traditions preserved, Okpewho is hereby
referring to those African writers who publish collections of traditional oral
literatures. Examples of such African writers include J.P. Clark’s The ozidi saga, which is told in seven
nights to dance, music, mime and rituals; J.P Clark’s ozidi (the play); Taban Lo Liyong’s ‘’The old man of Usumbura and
His Misery.’’ These works preserved the thematic and stylistic purity of
traditional oral literature.
In traditions observed, the writers in this
group use the context (narrative-audience close relationship) of the oral
performance as well as the matter (heroic figure of the oral tale) and the
matter (of oral narration) to address moral issues.
The writers that refine traditions lean on African
cosmology to dwell on socio-political issues. Soyinka’s Idanre and Other Poems, A Dance
of the Forests and The Interpreters
are perfect examples in this regard. In the texts, Soyin ka uses a mythic
character/essence, Ogun (the god of iron), to negotiate socio-economic issues.
Traditions revised denotes the art and
act of using the manner and Oral Traditions ‘’to negate, to indict the matter
of Oral Tradition’’ (George 1997:109).
Therefore, modern
African writers are integrating traditions into their works in different ways
and intensities. However, they all work towards the same goal-domestication of
imported genres in order to rehabilitate the African past, that is, the local
ethnic tenets and philosophy, beliefs, attitudes to life and existence of
precolonial Africa (Nwachukwu – Agbada: 2000).
Nonetheless, Emmanuel
Obiechina wonders why Greek’s parameter should be used in the evaluation of
drama in Nigeria. Scholars like Obiechina believe that “theatre is first and
foremost an experience” and so should be experienced in different ways by
people in different cultural milieu. We believe that drama, which is an art, is
an outcome of a creative instinct. A creative person is an imaginative
individual who is capable of impressing an audience with the product of his
imagination. Traditional African drama and theatre are embedded in performances.
These include, rituals, festivals, story-telling, masquerade poetry composed
performances, music/dance, puppet shows and many other forms of performances.
We also believe that for drama to exist, there must be an element of imitation
of an action. Dialogue and unified plot structure should not be considered as
obligatory in dramatic performance. However, in some traditional performances
ritual and theatre are so interwoven that it becomes difficult to extricate the
drama embedded in such performances (Ogundeji, 214).
1.1.3 Modern
African Drama
In attempting the
definition of Modern African Drama, it is important to take cursory look at
what makes ‘’traditional’’ and the ‘’modern’’ African literature. This is
probably useful in the sense that traditional African literature is something
which exists in our indigenous languages and which is related to traditional
societies and cultures, while modern African literature has grown out of the
rupture created within our indigenous history and way of life by the colonial
experience, which is naturally expressed in the tongue of our former colonial
rulers. This distinction is useful because in their separate characteristics,
both with regard to content and to form, the two kinds of literature do show
clearly marked differences and derive from various different sectors of the
African experience. More so, the fact that they relate to different moments and
phases in the collective experience and consciousness of African peoples, gives
to their present-day, side-by-side existence a certain historical and
sociological significance. It suffices to say then that Modern African Drama is
the emergence or creation of some literary works out of the rupture created
within our indigenous history and way of life by the colonial experience which
is naturally expressed in the tongue of our former colonial masters that also
shows a propensity for an artistic reconstruction of indigenous traditions. It
draws from the indigenous performance traditions and idioms of precolonial Africa.
In the plays of some renowned African playwrights, such as Wole Soyinka, J.P
Clark, Efua T. Sutherland, Ama Ata Aidoo, Ebrahim Hussein, Ngugi Wa Thiongo,
Micere Mugo, Serumaga, Kobina Sekyi and others, there is reasonable amount of
evidence of borrowing from their traditional cultural milieux and all these
forms that are artistically embedded in their plays, produce wonderful
aesthetics. Most of the above mentioned playwrights belong to the early
playwrights and dramatists who are cultural liberationists discussing
nationalist ideals, cultural re-affirmation and historical re-engineering in
their dramas. Modern African drama could be called the literary drama which is
different from the traditional form of drama (J. P. Clark, 1981, cited by
Ogunbiyi Yemi, 10). By and large, Binebai Benedict (371) recognizes James Ene
Henshaw to be the first Nigerian modern literary dramatist because his first
play was published in 1954. His play was in total protest against the cultural
debasement of Africa culture. This makes him the first of the first generation.
Ramsaran (1970) testifies to the validity of
the claim that modern African drama has been conditioned by the indigenous
traditions of its enabling society. Adedeji (1978) also observes that the
Alarinjo Theatre is a veritable source for modern African drama. He maintains
that although some forces had committed the Alarinjo Theatre into antiquity, it
is still a source for the modern African playwrights, most especially the
Yoruba writers like Soyinka, Ola Rotimi and Wale Ogunyemi. Commenting on why
Nigerian/African drama is full of cultural and verbal elements,
Nwachukwu-Agbada declares:
If
it were possible for a piece of Nigerian and African fiction to survive without
oral tradition materials, its drama variant could not do without and verbal
elements. Apart from the fact that Nigerians know of various dimensions of
drama and dramatic enactments long before the writing culture, drama is a
performance which is implemented before a live audience and which can only
authenticate itself if it is an ‘’elegant imitation’’ of what the theatregoers
can identify with (2000:76).
Modern African Drama
can be grouped into three major language regions in Africa, namely: the
Franco-phone, the Anglo-phone, and the Luso-phone. The Franco-phone deals with
the drama of the French language-speaking region. On the other hand, the
Anglo-phone deals with the drama of the English language-speaking region,
mostly in West Africa; the Luso-phone deals with that of the Portuguese
language-speaking region. These classifications can be subdivided into smaller
geographical subcategories such as Anglo-phone, West African, Nigerian and Ibo
drama and so on, taking one geographical typology into cognizance.
In addition, modern
West African drama as a subset of modern African drama can be said to be compartmentalized into three major phases
which are almost intricately related. This is what many literary scholars posit
and classify as the era of paradise on
earth, paradise disturbed and paradise regained. In furtherance to the
above, Oyin Ogunba (1977) has also identified as three broad categories into
which modern West African plays can be placed: propaganda plays, involving
politics and ideology; plays expressing culture-naturalism, or plays expressing
preference for the new cultural integrationist vision; and finally, the satiric
plays. The relevance of this classification is limited to its time, the early
1970s when it was made because of the evolvement of new dramatic forms
identified to be of contemporary dramatic relevance by scholars.
The pre-colonial period
also termed by some writers as the era of paradise
on earth was predominantly characterized by a communal life pattern. During
this period, virtually every activity was done in the way of the people that
lived in that particular community, despite the fact that many of these
communities were different in terms of population, physical and fiscal
endowments, and linguistic variations and so on; one distinct factor which was
tradition characterized their life pattern.
The next stage which
was the colonial era and sometimes referred to as the era of paradise disturbed is a period in which
various innovations like western education, religion and western tradition were
introduced. Though, these factors collectively undermined tradition, the common
denominator that served as a bond among the African people. The colonial era,
therefore, marked the beginning of the subtle vandalism and subjugation of
African tradition which had hitherto held Africa together. This position is
affirmed in Achebe’s (1958) Things Fall
Apart with this apparently terse symbolic lamentation: he has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have
fallen apart (162).
The last of the
phases termed post-colonial era is subject
of controversy, as many writers dispute the term post-colonial and prefer call
it neo-colonial,post-independence or paradise
regained era. This phase is regarded as the period of social, cultural and
traditional renaissance. This is the period in which the African literary
writers now resolve to reassemble the components of that common unifying factor
called tradition that was smashed by the colonialists throughout the years
colonialism thrived in Africa. These components are what could be referred to
as traditional elements or indigenous elements in African drama. As stated by
Iyorwuese (158), immediately after independence, they resorted to African drama
by deserting the landmarks of western drama. In this light, J. P. Clark wrote Ozidi Saga; Efua Sunderland wrote Edufa and Foriwa and Anansewa. Similarly,
Elvania Zirimu and Nuwa Sentogo infused traditional elements into drama in East
Africa. Both the western and African critics became confronted with a
metamorphosis of drama and started seeking other evaluation criteria for
analyzing African drama.
Modern African drama is,
in essence, a pot-pourri of traditional and modern dramatic elements. This is
seen through the dramatist’s use of materials drawn from western culture and
from a broad of African cultural spectra which include folktales, proverbs,
myths, dance and songs, rituals, incantations, taboo, inheritance, etc. These
are examples of traditional elements that constitute a rich oral repertoire
from which the African dramatists explore to enrich their dramatic performance.
Iyorwuese (159), while dismissing the early drama like J. P. Clark’s, noted
that Soyinka was the only outstanding African playwright who could be exonerated
from complete reliance on western dramatic style and form because of the
synthesis of western and traditional elements in his works. His plays like A Dance of the Forest, The Road and Madmen and Specialist utilize quite
fascinating traditional elements that endear him to his fans across board.
1.2.
Statement of the Problem
Quite a good number of
researches on African drama have concentrated on the artistic product, thereby
ignoring the means of production. The means of production for African drama are
basically culture and oral tradition generally. As far as the Afro-centric
scholars are concerned, these should form the basis of evaluation for African
drama, rather than the use of universal elements derived from Aristotelian
aesthetic elements. Afro-centric scholars have, therefore, disagreed on the use
of the universal elements in appreciating African drama in as much as drama is
culture-specific and dependent. To them, the use of such accentuates the
Euro-centric argument against the existence of drama in Africa before the
intrusion of colonialism. As noted by Osuagwu and Affiah (7), judging African
literature by standards other than those found within its cultural context
shall amount to invalidating indigenous African drama which antagonism has been
founded on the faulty assumption and misconception that there is one and only
one absolute dramatic standard or dramaturgy - Western dramatic standard. As further
argued by Etherton (33), the modification of the Aristotelian aesthetic
elements of drama ended in questions as: whether ritual or festival observed in
performance provides a new definition for drama? Ogundeji (215) strengthens
this argument by stating clearly that the “formalistic western concept of
“art-for-art-sake” is not applicable in the African cultural context because
art has always served, and still serves other utilitarian purposes other than
aesthetics.” Similarly, the formalistic school cannot be used in the
appreciation of Modern African Drama because it is basically rooted and watered
by African tradition and culture.
Thus, the validity of
indigenous African drama must be rooted within the context of African culture.
Once this validity for Africa is established, then it is automatically valid
per se. The evaluation of African literature must be based on the aesthetics
which are dependent on African culture and world-view. Osuagwu and Affiah (6)
further argue that much time and energy need be invested in conceptualizing and
operationalizing indigenous African drama as well as identifying, crystallizing
and re-iterating the defining characteristics of indigenous African drama as
basis for the analysis, understanding and appreciation of African plays.
Based upon the above
argument, this work intends to take the above cultural challenge to dwell on
the indigenous elements in modern African drama through selected plays of
Soyinka and Zulu Sofola. This would help in establishing the extent and efforts
African writers invest in reconstructing their cultural identity through
literature in contemporary times. This is in line with the dictates of ethno-dramatic
theory and its concept of afro centricity.
This is borne out of
the fact that most critiques of African plays by these two playwrights have
centred on culture conflict and contact, as well as feminism. Good examples are
Ahuama Chika (2011) who hinges her work on the conflicting point between the
traditional and western culture in The
Lion and The Jewel and Oloruntoba-Ojo and Oloruntoba-Oju (2013) who
concentrate on the theme of feminism in the works of Sofola, among others. In
the words of Iyorwuese (160), it is logical while searching for an African
dramatic aesthetic to go to African oral tradition in analyzing the plays of
Soyinka and Sofola. Only Zargar Sara (85-89) has attempted to use Afro-centricity
in analyzing Soyinka’s The Lion and the
Jewel and The Road.
1.3. Research Questions
a. What traditional elements are
utilized by African playwrights in modern African drama?
b. Of what significance are these
traditional elements in modern African drama?
c. To what extent does the use of
traditional elements justify the employment of ethno-dramatics or
Afro-centricity as a background evaluation theory for African drama?
1.4. Purpose of the Study
Giving the fact that many writers have written and contributed
immensely to this particular area of research, it is imperative to fill up the
scholarship gap which is yet unfilled in evaluating the traditional contents in
modern African drama through some selected plays of Wole Soyinka and Zulu
Sofola. This is in pursuance of the African dramatic aesthetics of evaluation
of African plays towards establishing the fact that drama is actually
culture-specific. In doing that, it shall be of importance to this study to
dislodge the use of the monolithic universal elements in the evaluation of
drama quite beyond the cultural shores of western geography.
More so, the study points out the cultural significance of the
utilized traditional elements that give drama in Africa its cultural identity
in contemporary times. Finally, it intends to justify how plausible it is in
applying the African aesthetics in appreciating African exoglottic drama
claimed by scholars like Iyorwuese (160) that the same tenets of
Afro-centricity cannot be employed in analysis. Other objective of this study
is to contribute to the knowledge of students of literature most especially
African drama which is unique and distinct from other forms of drama in the
world. Also, this study straightens the argument against the non-existence of
drama in Africa as well as disprove the use of western dramatic evaluation
model in appraising African drama. To establish this, the traditional contents
in African drama through the plays of Wole Soyinka and Zulu Sofola are explored.
This study specifically
analyzes the extent of indispensability of traditional elements in
modern and contemporary African drama.
1.5. Scope
of the Study
The choice of
two Nigerian African playwrights (Wole Soyinka and Zulu Sofola) is to balance
the gender equality of male and female writers within the Nigerian literary
space and this work is limited to some of their works and to the evaluation of
traditional elements in Nigerian drama, a subset of African drama, using
sampling technique through some of their selected plays (Wole Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman, The Strong Breed, The Lion And The
Jewel; and Zulu Sofola’s Wedlock of the Gods, King Emene, and The Sweet Trap),as these texts are
uniquely embellished with a lot use of
traditional elements.
1.6. Significance of the Study
This
study would help to draw significant attention towards traditional elements as
indispensable resources for cultural identity and creativity in not just modern
but also contemporary African drama. Evaluation of African drama within the
arguments of ethno-dramatics and its localized theoretical equivalent,
Afro-centricity, would no doubt, be quite indispensable to the pursuit of
reconstruction and re-utilization of oral tradition and culture by playwrights
in an era much given to cultural imperialism.
Therefore,
this study will accentuate the use of indigenous elements beyond modern African
drama. Students and scholars of
African drama would be given the scope within which African drama should be
appraised. It helps to establish the need or otherwise for not using the universal
elements in adjudging African drama like other dramas. And above all, the study
would establish the existence of indigenous African drama through the use of
African culture, custom, tradition and their carry-over significance in
contemporary African drama production, criticism and scholarship. Importantly,
this work would serve as the basis for adjudging African drama in world where
cultures are converging and submerging in contemporary times.
1.7. Research Methodology
The research method
adopted in this study is the content analogy type, that often relies on
secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data. On the
other hand, the data collected from literature review are used in
text-analyzing some selected plays of Wole Soyinka and Zulu Sofola in line with
the objective of this study.
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Item Type: Postgraduate Material | Attribute: 102 pages | Chapters: 1-5
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